Publication date: December 01, 2025
The defendant, as a party in Polish civil proceedings, is a subject of rights and obligations. Their role in achieving the goal of each proceedings — the issuance of a just judgment that concludes the case—is indispensable. As the subject of the lawsuit, they respond to the opposing party’s arguments, thus assisting the court in fulfilling its task of fairly resolving the dispute. The defendant offers the justice system their perspective, which is essential because the justice system’s clear duty is to hear both sides; otherwise, it would be impossible to speak of a fair trial in which citizens have the opportunity and right to defend their rights and interests. Far from being a passive recipient of allegations, they are an active participant in the process, influencing the shape and course of the entire procedure and its outcome through the exercise of their rights. It should also be noted that the defendant’s overall rights and obligations constitute the principle of equality of parties in civil proceedings, which precludes denying one party access to necessary legal tools, for example, by excluding the possibility of appointing a legal representative or the ability to submit evidentiary motions. These rights extend beyond court proceedings and also include the use of amicable dispute resolution methods, such as mediation. Mediation naturally serves to avoid lengthy and costly litigation by reaching a settlement that is at least partially satisfactory to both parties. However, court proceedings, similarly, cannot limit the rights of one party at the expense of the other. The purpose of this study is to review the defendant’s rights in both arbitration and pre-trial proceedings, as well as in selected areas of court proceedings (hearings).
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Publication date: December 01, 2025
BREXIT AND BUYER AND SELLER OBLIGATIONS
With its exit from the European Union, the United Kingdom has ended the lack of advanced trade formalization between EU member states and the United Kingdom. It does not benefit from full access to the EU single market and customs union, nor from international agreements (including free trade agreements) that the EU has concluded with other third countries. This entails special requirements that must be met by businesses importing works of art into the customs territory of the European Union.
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Publication date: October 15, 2025
A characteristic of consumer transactions is the inequality of parties. Generally, the entrepreneur has a stronger position than the consumer. Practice and experience show that the entrepreneur will dictate the terms of the contract, including price, warranty terms, delivery time and location, and payment method. This places the entrepreneur in a stronger position vis-à-vis the consumer, who is often forced to comply. This can pose a threat when the entrepreneur exploits their dominant position to impose unfair terms on the consumer, to which the consumer will be forced to adapt.
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Publication date: October 10, 2025
A shadow fleet is a term used to describe vessels engaged in illegal operations aimed at circumventing sanctions, evading safety or environmental regulations, or avoiding insurance costs.[1] The term broadly refers to illegal practices occurring in the maritime sector.[2] Importantly, it is not just the cargo that is being concealed, but also the entire vessel transporting it—hence the term “shadow fleet” or “ghost fleet”. Currently, it is primarily used in the context of Russia’s efforts to circumvent sanctions. These sanctions were imposed by, among others, the EU and the United Kingdom and are a consequence of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
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Publication date: September 10, 2025
In recent years, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of people traveling from Arab countries to Poland for recreational, tourism, and leisure purposes. The surge in tourism from Arab countries to Poland, particularly from the United Arab Emirates, began in April 2018, when the low-cost airline Flydubai launched a flight between the UAE and Krakow. Since then, the number of tourists from Arab countries has been growing.
A significant aspect of travel culture in Arab countries is halal tourism – the Muslim travel style that complies with Sharia law. Halal tourism is a narrower concept than Muslim tourism, as it applies only to groups who wish to adhere to religious norms while traveling. It increasingly serves primarily entertainment, relaxation, and recreational purposes.
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