Publication date: June 1, 2026

Practical application – the case of a museum as a bidder

Can an entity endowed with a statutory right of first refusal simultaneously influence the price it ultimately pays? In the historical monuments auction market, this question is no longer merely a theoretical dilemma. The active participation of registered museums in auctions, combined with the possibility of later exercising their right of first refusal, raises serious questions regarding auction transparency, the equality of participants, and the limits of permissible exercise of public law rights. This article examines this issue at the intersection of civil law, cultural heritage protection, and fair market principles.

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Publication date: May 13, 2026

The CE marking was introduced as part of the harmonization of product marking processes within the EU. It is intended to replace all existing conformity markings. The marking itself indicates that the product meets the requirements of the applicable regulations. It is affixed to products intended for introduction into the EEA and Turkish markets, regardless of where they were manufactured.

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Publication date: May 11, 2026

Resignation from the management board of a limited liability company is permissible at any time, regardless of the term of office. Therefore, a sole management board member is not obligated to serve until the end of their term and may terminate their position earlier either through their own resignation or through dismissal by the relevant body. Each of these options leads to the expiry of their mandate, but they differ significantly in terms of procedure and practical consequences.

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Publication date: May 05, 2026

The first act of Polish-British military cooperation, preceding Poland’s accession to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, was the Agreement on Military Cooperation between the Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland and the Ministry of Defence of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, signed on October 30, 1995. Under the Agreement, bilateral cooperation between Poland and the United Kingdom covered more than a dozen areas, primarily: defense policy; arms control and confidence- and security-building measures; verification activities under international agreements, including joint inspections and observation flights; planning principles; organizational structures of the armed forces; personnel policy; military law; education in the armed forces; training of military and civilian personnel; the role of the armed forces in peacetime; participation of the armed forces in humanitarian operations and during natural disasters; maritime search and rescue; military administration; military medicine; cartography and hydrography; research and development activities; and environmental protection within the armed forces, with the possibility of expanding to other forms of cooperation and modifying existing provisions. In 2002, this was supplemented by a separate memorandum of understanding between the Government of the Republic of Poland and the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning the conduct of military exercises and training and the provision of host nation support. Under the agreement, as part of its general obligations, the host nation is to issue consent and take actions to facilitate the hosting forces in: conducting agreed exercises and training; moving troops along national land, air, and sea routes; moving military equipment, weapons, ammunition, and supplies along these routes; using airport and port facilities; and using local resources to meet the host forces’ supply and equipment needs. Furthermore, the host nation: authorizes host force personnel to use lethal warfare (live ammunition) at agreed locations; provides liaison personnel; informs them of applicable national regulations; assists with customs and settlement matters; and ensures the standard of goods and services provided. These host forces must: conduct exercises and training in accordance with their implementing agreements and other applicable regulations; reimburse the host nation for the costs of supplying goods and services other than those provided free of charge; return borrowed items in unaltered condition; comply with customs regulations; Comply with host nation regulations and procedures, including those related to environmental protection; notify the host nation of shipments of ammunition and hazardous materials, store and use them in accordance with applicable regulations, and provide liaison personnel as needed . In matters of discipline, authorized host nation authorities have the right to detain host military personnel, but must immediately inform their superiors. The host nation exercises jurisdiction over host military personnel within the framework of the general penal system.

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Concluding international trade agreements is becoming increasingly easier and risk-free. International trade underpins the global economy more than ever before, due to globalization and the increasing unification of legal provisions governing this matter, along with the expansion of international agreements and intergovernmental cooperation. However, international law does not always address the needs of complex relationships between entities from different countries, which leads to a lack of certainty and predictability in legal transactions. To stabilize international contractual relations, efforts are being made to standardize private law at the international level and adapt state regulations to the needs of cross-border trade. This task is becoming increasingly easier due to the rapid development of new technologies and the digitization of organizational centers. Organizations such as the Hague Conference on Private International Law are engaged in the unification of private law.

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