In this article attention will be paid to the valuation of the company’s shares:
When is a stock valued at the day’s price?
When is a stock valued at its mid-year average price?
The topic will be analyzed from an economic perspective. Additionally, these aspects will include situations in which one of the previously mentioned valuations is used and why it works well in those situations.
Stock Valuation
Stock valuation is a key process for investors, allowing them to assess investment risk and helping them decide whether to buy or sell a stock. There are several stock valuation methods that provide information about whether a company is undervalued or overvalued.
EMIR (European Market Infrastructure Regulation (EU) 2017/1899 is a regulation of the Council of the European Union and of the European Parliament on over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives, central counterparties and trade repositories. The regulation aims to increase the safety and stability of financial markets in Europe and prevent financial crises.
Dynamic technological advancements have led modern businesses to operate in ways unforeseen decades ago. Computerization, in particular, without which modern business operations are inconceivable, has effectively broadened the horizons of many entrepreneurs, while simultaneously leaving room for abuse by cybercriminals. The protection of data stored on companies’ internal servers has become crucial. It should be noted that despite the efforts of both EU and national authorities, new threats are emerging in the field of personal data protection law, which may lead to violations not only of general provisions on the protection of personal rights but also of many other legal disciplines, such as copyright. The unprecedented mass digitization of artistic works has resulted in the inclusion of records of paintings, photographs, films, music, architectural designs, and many other manifestations of creative activity as data. From this perspective, the phenomenon of data laundering takes on a unique character and carries with it new threats.
In an era of dynamic digital technology development and a growing number of cyberthreats, cybersecurity and personal data protection are becoming key aspects of how organizations operate in the European Union. New regulations, such as NIS2, DORA, AI Act, CRA, and eIDAS 2.0, combined with the current GDPR, create a comprehensive security system aimed at raising protection standards and ensuring greater transparency in data processing.
The term “carousel fraud” refers to a characteristic scheme in which goods, after passing through a series of related entities, ultimately end up back at the original supplier. This mechanism allows perpetrators to conceal the actual transaction and generate undue tax benefits, most often by fraudulently obtaining VAT refunds or avoiding their payment. A key feature of VAT is its neutrality, so it should not impose an additional burden on taxpayers who do not consume the purchased goods or services but use them for business purposes. However, the structure of this tax makes it particularly vulnerable to abuse. In accordance with the principle of the free movement of goods, the supply of goods between European Union (EU) countries is subject to a 0% VAT rate. VAT carousels involve the use of complex transaction mechanisms embedded in the value added tax structure to avoid paying output tax or to unlawfully obtain a refund. These activities take the form of fictitious economic transactions, which involve the apparent movement of goods between entities located in different Member States. This can be very high, especially with relatively small financial outlays by the fraudsters, as the fraud involves goods that are repeatedly exported and returned to Poland.
